Gibbon's The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire
Home | Prev
| Next
| Contents
Chapter LVII: The Turks.
Part I.
The Turks Of The House Of Seljuk. -- Their Revolt Against Mahmud
Conqueror Of Hindostan. -- Togrul Subdues Persia, And Protects The
Caliphs. -- Defeat And Captivity Of The Emperor Romanus Diogenes By Alp
Arslan. -- Power And Magnificence Of Malek Shah. -- Conquest Of Asia
Minor And Syria. -- State And Oppression Of Jerusalem. -- Pilgrimages To
The Holy Sepulchre.
From the Isle of Sicily, the reader must transport himself beyond the
Caspian Sea, to the original seat of the Turks or Turkmans, against whom
the first crusade was principally directed. Their Scythian empire of the
sixth century was long since dissolved; but the name was still famous
among the Greeks and Orientals; and the fragments of the nation, each a
powerful and independent people, were scattered over the desert from
China to the Oxus and the Danube: the colony of Hungarians was admitted
into the republic of Europe, and the thrones of Asia were occupied by
slaves and soldiers of Turkish extraction. While Apulia and Sicily were
subdued by the Norman lance, a swarm of these northern shepherds
overspread the kingdoms of Persia; their princes of the race of Seljuk
erected a splendid and solid empire from Samarcand to the confines of
Greece and Egypt; and the Turks have maintained their dominion in Asia
Minor, till the victorious crescent has been planted on the dome of St.
Sophia.
One of the greatest of the Turkish princes was Mahmood or Mahmud, the
Gaznevide, who reigned in the eastern provinces of Persia, one thousand
years after the birth of Christ. His father Sebectagi was the slave of
the slave of the slave of the commander of the faithful. But in this
descent of servitude, the first degree was merely titular, since it was
filled by the sovereign of Transoxiana and Chorasan, who still paid a
nominal allegiance to the caliph of Bagdad. The second rank was that of
a minister of state, a lieutenant of the Samanides, who broke, by his
revolt, the bonds of political slavery. But the third step was a state
of real and domestic servitude in the family of that rebel; from which
Sebectagi, by his courage and dexterity, ascended to the supreme command
of the city and provinces of Gazna, as the son-in-law and successor of
his grateful master. The falling dynasty of the Samanides was at first
protected, and at last overthrown, by their servants; and, in the public
disorders, the fortune of Mahmud continually increased. From him the
title of Sultan was first invented; and his kingdom was enlarged from
Transoxiana to the neighborhood of Ispahan, from the shores of the
Caspian to the mouth of the Indus. But the principal source of his fame
and riches was the holy war which he waged against the Gentoos of
Hindostan. In this foreign narrative I may not consume a page; and a
volume would scarcely suffice to recapitulate the battles and sieges of
his twelve expeditions. Never was the Mussulman hero dismayed by the
inclemency of the seasons, the height of the mountains, the breadth of
the rivers, the barrenness of the desert, the multitudes of the enemy,
or the formidable array of their elephants of war. The sultan of Gazna
surpassed the limits of the conquests of Alexander: after a march of
three months, over the hills of Cashmir and Thibet, he reached the
famous city of Kinnoge, on the Upper Ganges; and, in a naval combat on
one of the branches of the Indus, he fought and vanquished four thousand
boats of the natives. Delhi, Lahor, and Multan, were compelled to open
their gates: the fertile kingdom of Guzarat attracted his ambition and
tempted his stay; and his avarice indulged the fruitless project of
discovering the golden and aromatic isles of the Southern Ocean. On the
payment of a tribute, the rajahs preserved their dominions; the people,
their lives and fortunes; but to the religion of Hindostan the zealous
Mussulman was cruel and inexorable: many hundred temples, or pagodas,
were levelled with the ground; many thousand idols were demolished; and
the servants of the prophet were stimulated and rewarded by the precious
materials of which they were composed. The pagoda of Sumnat was situate
on the promontory of Guzarat, in the neighborhood of Diu, one of the
last remaining possessions of the Portuguese. It was endowed with the
revenue of two thousand villages; two thousand Brahmins were consecrated
to the service of the Deity, whom they washed each morning and evening
in water from the distant Ganges: the subordinate ministers consisted of
three hundred musicians, three hundred barbers, and five hundred dancing
girls, conspicuous for their birth or beauty. Three sides of the temple
were protected by the ocean, the narrow isthmus was fortified by a
natural or artificial precipice; and the city and adjacent country were
peopled by a nation of fanatics. They confessed the sins and the
punishment of Kinnoge and Delhi; but if the impious stranger should
presume to approach their holy precincts, he would surely be overwhelmed
by a blast of the divine vengeance. By this challenge, the faith of
Mahmud was animated to a personal trial of the strength of this Indian
deity. Fifty thousand of his worshippers were pierced by the spear of
the Moslems; the walls were scaled; the sanctuary was profaned; and the
conqueror aimed a blow of his iron mace at the head of the idol. The
trembling Brahmins are said to have offered ten millions * sterling for
his ransom; and it was urged by the wisest counsellors, that the
destruction of a stone image would not change the hearts of the Gentoos;
and that such a sum might be dedicated to the relief of the true
believers. "Your reasons," replied the sultan, "are specious and strong;
but never in the eyes of posterity shall Mahmud appear as a merchant of
idols." * He repeated his blows, and a treasure of pearls and rubies,
concealed in the belly of the statue, explained in some degree the
devout prodigality of the Brahmins. The fragments of the idol were
distributed to Gazna, Mecca, and Medina. Bagdad listened to the edifying
tale; and Mahmud was saluted by the caliph with the title of guardian of
the fortune and faith of Mahomet.
From the paths of blood (and such is the history of nations) I cannot
refuse to turn aside to gather some flowers of science or virtue. The
name of Mahmud the Gaznevide is still venerable in the East: his
subjects enjoyed the blessings of prosperity and peace; his vices were
concealed by the veil of religion; and two familiar examples will
testify his justice and magnanimity. I. As he sat in the Divan, an
unhappy subject bowed before the throne to accuse the insolence of a
Turkish soldier who had driven him from his house and bed. "Suspend your
clamors," said Mahmud; "inform me of his next visit, and ourself in
person will judge and punish the offender." The sultan followed his
guide, invested the house with his guards, and extinguishing the
torches, pronounced the death of the criminal, who had been seized in
the act of rapine and adultery. After the execution of his sentence, the
lights were rekindled, Mahmud fell prostrate in prayer, and rising from
the ground, demanded some homely fare, which he devoured with the
voraciousness of hunger. The poor man, whose injury he had avenged, was
unable to suppress his astonishment and curiosity; and the courteous
monarch condescended to explain the motives of this singular behavior.
"I had reason to suspect that none, except one of my sons, could dare to
perpetrate such an outrage; and I extinguished the lights, that my
justice might be blind and inexorable. My prayer was a thanksgiving on
the discovery of the offender; and so painful was my anxiety, that I had
passed three days without food since the first moment of your
complaint." II. The sultan of Gazna had declared war against the dynasty
of the Bowides, the sovereigns of the western Persia: he was disarmed by
an epistle of the sultana mother, and delayed his invasion till the
manhood of her son. "During the life of my husband," said the artful
regent, "I was ever apprehensive of your ambition: he was a prince and a
soldier worthy of your arms. He is now no more his sceptre has passed to
a woman and a child, and you dare not attack their infancy and weakness.
How inglorious would be your conquest, how shameful your defeat! and yet
the event of war is in the hand of the Almighty." Avarice was the only
defect that tarnished the illustrious character of Mahmud; and never has
that passion been more richly satiated. * The Orientals exceed the
measure of credibility in the account of millions of gold and silver,
such as the avidity of man has never accumulated; in the magnitude of
pearls, diamonds, and rubies, such as have never been produced by the
workmanship of nature. Yet the soil of Hindostan is impregnated with
precious minerals: her trade, in every age, has attracted the gold and
silver of the world; and her virgin spoils were rifled by the first of
the Mahometan conquerors. His behavior, in the last days of his life,
evinces the vanity of these possessions, so laboriously won, so
dangerously held, and so inevitably lost. He surveyed the vast and
various chambers of the treasury of Gazna, burst into tears, and again
closed the doors, without bestowing any portion of the wealth which he
could no longer hope to preserve. The following day he reviewed the
state of his military force; one hundred thousand foot, fifty-five
thousand horse, and thirteen hundred elephants of battle. He again wept
the instability of human greatness; and his grief was imbittered by the
hostile progress of the Turkmans, whom he had introduced into the heart
of his Persian kingdom.
In the modern depopulation of Asia, the regular operation of government
and agriculture is confined to the neighborhood of cities; and the
distant country is abandoned to the pastoral tribes of Arabs, Curds, and
Turkmans. Of the last-mentioned people, two considerable branches extend
on either side of the Caspian Sea: the western colony can muster forty
thousand soldiers; the eastern, less obvious to the traveller, but more
strong and populous, has increased to the number of one hundred thousand
families. In the midst of civilized nations, they preserve the manners
of the Scythian desert, remove their encampments with a change of
seasons, and feed their cattle among the ruins of palaces and temples.
Their flocks and herds are their only riches; their tents, either black
or white, according to the color of the banner, are covered with felt,
and of a circular form; their winter apparel is a sheep-skin; a robe of
cloth or cotton their summer garment: the features of the men are harsh
and ferocious; the countenance of their women is soft and pleasing.
Their wandering life maintains the spirit and exercise of arms; they
fight on horseback; and their courage is displayed in frequent contests
with each other and with their neighbors. For the license of pasture
they pay a slight tribute to the sovereign of the land; but the domestic
jurisdiction is in the hands of the chiefs and elders. The first
emigration of the Eastern Turkmans, the most ancient of the race, may be
ascribed to the tenth century of the Christian æra. In the decline of
the caliphs, and the weakness of their lieutenants, the barrier of the
Jaxartes was often violated; in each invasion, after the victory or
retreat of their countrymen, some wandering tribe, embracing the
Mahometan faith, obtained a free encampment in the spacious plains and
pleasant climate of Transoxiana and Carizme. The Turkish slaves who
aspired to the throne encouraged these emigrations which recruited their
armies, awed their subjects and rivals, and protected the frontier
against the wilder natives of Turkestan; and this policy was abused by
Mahmud the Gaznevide beyond the example of former times. He was
admonished of his error by the chief of the race of Seljuk, who dwelt in
the territory of Bochara. The sultan had inquired what supply of men he
could furnish for military service. "If you send," replied Ismael, "one
of these arrows into our camp, fifty thousand of your servants will
mount on horseback." -- "And if that number," continued Mahmud, "should
not be sufficient?" -- "Send this second arrow to the horde of Balik,
and you will find fifty thousand more." -- "But," said the Gaznevide,
dissembling his anxiety, "if I should stand in need of the whole force
of your kindred tribes?" -- "Despatch my bow," was the last reply of
Ismael, "and as it is circulated around, the summons will be obeyed by
two hundred thousand horse." The apprehension of such formidable
friendship induced Mahmud to transport the most obnoxious tribes into
the heart of Chorasan, where they would be separated from their brethren
of the River Oxus, and enclosed on all sides by the walls of obedient
cities. But the face of the country was an object of temptation rather
than terror; and the vigor of government was relaxed by the absence and
death of the sultan of Gazna. The shepherds were converted into robbers;
the bands of robbers were collected into an army of conquerors: as far
as Ispahan and the Tigris, Persia was afflicted by their predatory
inroads; and the Turkmans were not ashamed or afraid to measure their
courage and numbers with the proudest sovereigns of Asia. Massoud, the
son and successor of Mahmud, had too long neglected the advice of his
wisest Omrahs. "Your enemies," they repeatedly urged, "were in their
origin a swarm of ants; they are now little snakes; and, unless they be
instantly crushed, they will acquire the venom and magnitude of
serpents." After some alternatives of truce and hostility, after the
repulse or partial success of his lieutenants, the sultan marched in
person against the Turkmans, who attacked him on all sides with
barbarous shouts and irregular onset. "Massoud," says the Persian
historian, "plunged singly to oppose the torrent of gleaming arms,
exhibiting such acts of gigantic force and valor as never king had
before displayed. A few of his friends, roused by his words and actions,
and that innate honor which inspires the brave, seconded their lord so
well, that wheresoever he turned his fatal sword, the enemies were mowed
down, or retreated before him. But now, when victory seemed to blow on
his standard, misfortune was active behind it; for when he looked round,
be beheld almost his whole army, excepting that body he commanded in
person, devouring the paths of flight." The Gaznevide was abandoned by
the cowardice or treachery of some generals of Turkish race; and this
memorable day of Zendecan founded in Persia the dynasty of the shepherd
kings.
The victorious Turkmans immediately proceeded to the election of a king;
and, if the probable tale of a Latin historian deserves any credit, they
determined by lot the choice of their new master. A number of arrows
were successively inscribed with the name of a tribe, a family, and a
candidate; they were drawn from the bundle by the hand of a child; and
the important prize was obtained by Togrul Beg, the son of Michael the
son of Seljuk, whose surname was immortalized in the greatness of his
posterity. The sultan Mahmud, who valued himself on his skill in
national genealogy, professed his ignorance of the family of Seljuk; yet
the father of that race appears to have been a chief of power and
renown. For a daring intrusion into the harem of his prince. Seljuk was
banished from Turkestan: with a numerous tribe of his friends and
vassals, he passed the Jaxartes, encamped in the neighborhood of
Samarcand, embraced the religion of Mahomet, and acquired the crown of
martyrdom in a war against the infidels. His age, of a hundred and seven
years, surpassed the life of his son, and Seljuk adopted the care of his
two grandsons, Togrul and Jaafar; the eldest of whom, at the age of
forty-five, was invested with the title of Sultan, in the royal city of
Nishabur. The blind determination of chance was justified by the virtues
of the successful candidate. It would be superfluous to praise the valor
of a Turk; and the ambition of Togrul was equal to his valor. By his
arms, the Gasnevides were expelled from the eastern kingdoms of Persia,
and gradually driven to the banks of the Indus, in search of a softer
and more wealthy conquest. In the West he annihilated the dynasty of the
Bowides; and the sceptre of Irak passed from the Persian to the Turkish
nation. The princes who had felt, or who feared, the Seljukian arrows,
bowed their heads in the dust; by the conquest of Aderbijan, or Media,
he approached the Roman confines; and the shepherd presumed to despatch
an ambassador, or herald, to demand the tribute and obedience of the
emperor of Constantinople. In his own dominions, Togrul was the father
of his soldiers and people; by a firm and equal administration, Persia
was relieved from the evils of anarchy; and the same hands which had
been imbrued in blood became the guardians of justice and the public
peace. The more rustic, perhaps the wisest, portion of the Turkmans
continued to dwell in the tents of their ancestors; and, from the Oxus
to the Euphrates, these military colonies were protected and propagated
by their native princes. But the Turks of the court and city were
refined by business and softened by pleasure: they imitated the dress,
language, and manners of Persia; and the royal palaces of Nishabur and
Rei displayed the order and magnificence of a great monarchy. The most
deserving of the Arabians and Persians were promoted to the honors of
the state; and the whole body of the Turkish nation embraced, with
fervor and sincerity, the religion of Mahomet. The northern swarms of
Barbarians, who overspread both Europe and Asia, have been
irreconcilably separated by the consequences of a similar conduct. Among
the Moslems, as among the Christians, their vague and local traditions
have yielded to the reason and authority of the prevailing system, to
the fame of antiquity, and the consent of nations. But the triumph of
the Koran is more pure and meritorious, as it was not assisted by any
visible splendor of worship which might allure the Pagans by some
resemblance of idolatry. The first of the Seljukian sultans was
conspicuous by his zeal and faith: each day he repeated the five prayers
which are enjoined to the true believers; of each week, the two first
days were consecrated by an extraordinary fast; and in every city a
mosch was completed, before Togrul presumed to lay the foundations of a
palace.
With the belief of the Koran, the son of Seljuk imbibed a lively
reverence for the successor of the prophet. But that sublime character
was still disputed by the caliphs of Bagdad and Egypt, and each of the
rivals was solicitous to prove his title in the judgment of the strong,
though illiterate Barbarians. Mahmud the Gaznevide had declared himself
in favor of the line of Abbas; and had treated with indignity the robe
of honor which was presented by the Fatimite ambassador. Yet the
ungrateful Hashemite had changed with the change of fortune; he
applauded the victory of Zendecan, and named the Seljukian sultan his
temporal vicegerent over the Moslem world. As Togrul executed and
enlarged this important trust, he was called to the deliverance of the
caliph Cayem, and obeyed the holy summons, which gave a new kingdom to
his arms. In the palace of Bagdad, the commander of the faithful still
slumbered, a venerable phantom. His servant or master, the prince of the
Bowides, could no longer protect him from the insolence of meaner
tyrants; and the Euphrates and Tigris were oppressed by the revolt of
the Turkish and Arabian emirs. The presence of a conqueror was implored
as a blessing; and the transient mischiefs of fire and sword were
excused as the sharp but salutary remedies which alone could restore the
health of the republic. At the head of an irresistible force, the sultan
of Persia marched from Hamadan: the proud were crushed, the prostrate
were spared; the prince of the Bowides disappeared; the heads of the
most obstinate rebels were laid at the feet of Togrul; and he inflicted
a lesson of obedience on the people of Mosul and Bagdad. After the
chastisement of the guilty, and the restoration of peace, the royal
shepherd accepted the reward of his labors; and a solemn comedy
represented the triumph of religious prejudice over Barbarian power. The
Turkish sultan embarked on the Tigris, landed at the gate of Racca, and
made his public entry on horseback. At the palace-gate he respectfully
dismounted, and walked on foot, preceded by his emirs without arms. The
caliph was seated behind his black veil: the black garment of the
Abbassides was cast over his shoulders, and he held in his hand the
staff of the apostle of God. The conqueror of the East kissed the
ground, stood some time in a modest posture, and was led towards the
throne by the vizier and interpreter. After Togrul had seated himself on
another throne, his commission was publicly read, which declared him the
temporal lieutenant of the vicar of the prophet. He was successively
invested with seven robes of honor, and presented with seven slaves, the
natives of the seven climates of the Arabian empire. His mystic veil was
perfumed with musk; two crowns * were placed on his head; two cimeters
were girded to his side, as the symbols of a double reign over the East
and West. After this inauguration, the sultan was prevented from
prostrating himself a second time; but he twice kissed the hand of the
commander of the faithful, and his titles were proclaimed by the voice
of heralds and the applause of the Moslems. In a second visit to Bagdad,
the Seljukian prince again rescued the caliph from his enemies and
devoutly, on foot, led the bridle of his mule from the prison to the
palace. Their alliance was cemented by the marriage of Togrul's sister
with the successor of the prophet. Without reluctance he had introduced
a Turkish virgin into his harem; but Cayem proudly refused his daughter
to the sultan, disdained to mingle the blood of the Hashemites with the
blood of a Scythian shepherd; and protracted the negotiation many
months, till the gradual diminution of his revenue admonished him that
he was still in the hands of a master. The royal nuptials were followed
by the death of Togrul himself; as he left no children, his nephew Alp
Arslan succeeded to the title and prerogatives of sultan; and his name,
after that of the caliph, was pronounced in the public prayers of the
Moslems. Yet in this revolution, the Abbassides acquired a larger
measure of liberty and power. On the throne of Asia, the Turkish
monarchs were less jealous of the domestic administration of Bagdad; and
the commanders of the faithful were relieved from the ignominious
vexations to which they had been exposed by the presence and poverty of
the Persian dynasty.
Prev
| Next
| Contents
|