CAESAR
A SKETCH
BY
JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE, M.A.
FORMERLY FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD
"Pardon, gentles all
The flat unraised spirit that hath dared
On this unworthy scaffold to bring forth
So great an object."
--SHAKESPEARE, Henry V.
PREFACE.
I have called this work a "sketch" because the
materials do not exist for a portrait which shall be at once
authentic and complete. The original authorities which are now
extant for the life of Caesar are his own writings, the speeches
and letters of Cicero, the eighth book of the
"Commentaries" on the wars in Gaul and the history of the
Alexandrian war, by Aulus Hirtius, the accounts of the African war
and of the war in Spain, composed by persons who were
unquestionably present in those two campaigns. To these must be
added the "Leges Juliae" which are preserved in the
Corpus Juris Civilis. Sallust contributes a speech, and Catullus a
poem. A few hints can be gathered from the Epitome of Livy and the
fragments of Varro; and here the contemporary sources which can be
entirely depended upon are brought to an end.
The secondary group of authorities from which the popular
histories of the time have been chiefly taken are Appian, Plutarch,
Suetonius, and Dion Cassius. Of these the first three were divided
from the period which they describe by nearly a century and a half,
Dion Cassius by more than two centuries. They had means of
knowledge which no longer exist--the writings, for instance, of
Asinius Pollio, who was one of Caesar's officers. But Asinius
Pollio's accounts of Caesar's actions, as reported by
Appian, cannot always be reconciled with the Commentaries; and all
these four writers relate incidents as facts which are sometimes
demonstrably false. Suetonius is apparently the most trustworthy.
His narrative, like those of his contemporaries, was colored by
tradition. His biographies of the earlier Caesars betray the same
spirit of animosity against them which taints the credibility of
Tacitus, and prevailed for so many years in aristocratic Roman
society. But Suetonius shows nevertheless an effort at veracity, an
antiquarian curiosity and diligence, and a serious anxiety to tell
his story impartially. Suetonius, in the absence of evidence direct
or presumptive to the contrary, I have felt myself able to follow.
The other three writers I have trusted only when I have found them
partially confirmed by evidence which is better to be relied
upon.
The picture which I have drawn will thus be found deficient in
many details which have passed into general acceptance, and I have
been unable to claim for it a higher title than that of an outline
drawing.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
Free Constitutions and Imperial Tendencies.--Instructiveness of
Roman History.--Character of Historical Epochs.--The Age of
Caesar.--Spiritual State of Rome.--Contrasts between Ancient and
Modern Civilization.
CHAPTER II.
The Roman Constitution.--Moral Character of the Romans.--Roman
Religion.--
Morality and Intellect.--Expansion of Roman Power.--The
Senate.--Roman
Slavery.--Effects of Intercourse with Greece.--Patrician
Degeneracy.--The
Roman Noble.--Influence of Wealth.--Beginnings of Discontent.
CHAPTER III.
Tiberius Gracchus.--Decay of the Italian Yeomanry.--Agrarian
Law.--Success and Murder of Gracchus.--Land Commission.--Caius
Gracchus.--Transfer of Judicial Functions from the Senate to the
Equites.--Sempronian Laws.--Free Grants of Corn.--Plans for
Extension of the Franchise.--New Colonies.-- Reaction.--Murder of
Caius Gracchus
CHAPTER IV.
Victory of the Optimates.--The Moors.--History of Jugurtha.--The
Senate corrupted.--Jugurthine War.--Defeat of the Romans.--Jugurtha
comes to Rome.--Popular Agitation.--The War renewed.--Roman Defeats
in Africa and Gaul.--Caecilius Metellus and Caius Marius.--Marriage
of Marius.--The Caesars.--Marius Consul.--First Notice of
Sylla.--Capture and Death of Jugurtha
CHAPTER V.
Birth of Cicero.--The Cimbri and Teutons.--German Immigration
into Gaul.-- Great Defeat of the Romans on the Rhone.--Wanderings
of the Cimbri.-- Attempted Invasion of Italy.--Battle of
Aix.--Destruction of the Teutons.--Defeat of the Cimbri on the
Po.--Reform in the Roman Army.-- Popular Disturbances in
Rome.--Murder of Memmius.--Murder of Saturninus and Glaucia
CHAPTER VI.
Birth and Childhood of Julius Caesar.--Italian
Franchise.--Discontent of the Italians.--Action of the Land
Laws.--The Social War.--Partial Concessions.--Sylla and
Marius.--Mithridates of Pontus.--First Mission of Sylla into
Asia.
CHAPTER VII.
War with Mithridates.--Massacre of Italians in Asia.--Invasion
of Greece.--Impotence and Corruption of the Senate.--End of the
Social War.-- Sylla appointed to the Asiatic Command.--The Assembly
transfer the Command to Marius.--Sylla marches on Rome.--Flight of
Marius.--Change of the Constitution.--Sylla sails for the
East.--Four Years' Absence.--Defeat of
Mithridates.--Contemporary Incidents at Rome.--Counter
Revolution.-- Consulship of Cinna.--Return of Marius.--Capitulation
of Rome.--Massacre of Patricians and Equites.--Triumph of
Democracy.
CHAPTER VIII.
The Young Caesar.--Connection with Marius.--Intimacy with the
Ciceros.-- Marriage of Caesar with the Daughter of
Cinna.--Sertorius.--Death of Cinna.--Consulships of Norbanus and
Scipio.--Sylla's Return.--First Appearance of Pompey.--Civil
War.--Victory of Sylla.--The Dictatorship and the
Proscription.--Destruction of the Popular Party and Murder of the
Popular Leaders.--General Character of Aristocratic
Revolutions.--The Constitution remodelled.--Concentration of Power
in the Senate.--Sylla's General Policy.--The Army.--Flight of
Sertorius to Spain.--Pompey and Sylla.--Caesar refuses to divorce
his Wife at Sylla's Order.--Danger of Caesar.--His
Pardon.--Growing Consequence of Cicero.--Defence of
Roscius.--Sylla's Abdication and Death
CHAPTER IX.
Sertorius in Spain.--Warning of Cicero to the
Patricians.--Leading Aristocrats.--Caesar with the Army in the
East.--Nicomedes of Bithynia.-- The Bithynian Scandal.--Conspiracy
of Lepidus.--Caesar returns to Rome.-- Defeat of
Lepidus.--Prosecution of Dolabella.--Caesar taken by Pirates.--
Senatorial Corruption.--Universal Disorder.--Civil War in
Spain.--Growth of Mediterranean Piracy.--Connivance of the
Senate.--Provincial Administration.--Verres in Sicily.--Prosecuted
by Cicero.--Second War with Mithridates.--First Success of
Lucullus.--Failure of Lucullus, and the Cause of it.--Avarice of
Roman Commanders.--The Gladiators.--The Servile War.--Results of
the Change in the Constitution introduced by Sylla
CHAPTER X.
Caesar Military Tribune.--Becomes known as a Speaker.--Is made
Quaestor.-- Speech at his Aunt's Funeral.--Consulship of Pompey
and Crassus.--Caesar marries Pompey's Cousin.--Mission to
Spain.--Restoration of the Powers of the Tribunes.--The Equites and
the Senate.--The Pirates.--Food Supplies cut off from Rome.--The
Gabinian Law.--Resistance of the Patricians.-- Suppression of the
Pirates by Pompey.--The Manilian Law.--Speech of Cicero.--Recall of
Lucullus.--Pompey sent to command in Asia.--Defeat and Death of
Mithridates.--Conquest of Asia by Pompey
CHAPTER XI.
History of Catiline.--A Candidate for the Consulship.--Catiline
and Cicero.--Cicero chosen Consul.--Attaches Himself to the
Senatorial Party.--Caesar elected Aedile.--Conducts an Inquiry into
the Syllan Proscriptions.--Prosecution of Rabirius.--Caesar becomes
Pontifex Maximus--and Praetor.--Cicero's Conduct as
Consul.--Proposed Agrarian Law.--Resisted by Cicero.--Catiline
again stands for the Consulship.-- Violent Language in the
Senate.--Threatened Revolution.--Catiline again defeated.--The
Conspiracy.--Warnings sent to Cicero.--Meeting at Catiline's
House.--Speech of Cicero in the Senate.--Cataline joins an Army of
Insurrection in Etruria.--His Fellow-conspirators.--Correspondence
with the Allobroges.--Letters read in the Senate.--The Conspirators
seized.-- Debate upon their Fate.--Speech of Caesar.--Caesar on a
Future State.-- Speech of Cato--and of Cicero.--The Conspirators
executed untried.--Death of Catiline.
CHAPTER XII.
Preparations for the Return of Pompey.--Scene in the
Forum.--Cato and Metellus.--Caesar suspended from the
Praetorship.--Caesar supports Pompey.--Scandals against
Caesar's Private Life.--General Character of them.--Festival of
the Bona Dea.--Publius Clodius enters Caesar's House dressed as
a Woman.--Prosecution and Trial of Clodius.--His Acquittal, and the
Reason of it.--Successes of Caesar as Propraetor in
Spain.--Conquest of Lusitania.--Return of Pompey to Italy.--First
Speech in the Senate.-- Precarious Position of Cicero.--Cato and
the Equites.--Caesar elected Consul.--Revival of the Democratic
Party.--Anticipated Agrarian Law.-- Uneasiness of Cicero.
CHAPTER XIII.
The Consulship of Caesar.--Character of his Intended
Legislation.--The Land Act first proposed in the Senate.--Violent
Opposition.--Caesar appeals to the Assembly.--Interference of the
Second Consul Bibulus.--The Land Act submitted to the
People.--Pompey and Crassus support it.--Bibulus interposes, but
without Success.--The Act carried--and other Laws.--The Senate no
longer being Consulted.--General Purpose of the Leges Juliae.--
Caesar appointed to Command in Gaul for Five Years.--His Object in
accepting that Province.--Condition of Gaul, and the Dangers to be
apprehended from it.--Alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.--The
Dynasts.--Indignation of the Aristocracy.--Threats to repeal
Caesar's Laws.--Necessity of Controlling Cicero and
Cato.--Clodius is made Tribune.--Prosecution of Cicero for Illegal
Acts when Consul.--Cicero's Friends forsake him.--He flies, and
is banished.
CHAPTER XIV.
Caesar's Military Narrative.--Divisions of
Gaul.--Distribution of Population.--The Celts.--Degree of
Civilization.--Tribal System.--The Druids.--The AEdui and the
Sequani.--Roman and German Parties.--Intended Migration of the
Helvetii.--Composition of Caesar's Army.--He goes to
Gaul.--Checks the Helvetii.--Returns to Italy for Larger
Forces.--The Helvetii on the Saône.--Defeated, and sent back to
Switzerland.--Invasion of Gaul by Ariovistus.--Caesar invites him
to a Conference.--He refuses.-- Alarm in the Roman Army.--Caesar
marches against Ariovistus.--Interview between them.--Treachery of
the Roman Senate.--Great Battle at Colmar.-- Defeat and
Annihilation of the Germans.--End of the First Campaign.--
Confederacy among the Belgae.--Battle on the Aisne.--War with the
Nervii.--Battle of Maubeuge.--Capture of Namur.--The Belgae
conquered.-- Submission of Brittany.--End of the Second
Campaign.
CHAPTER XV.
Cicero and Clodius.--Position and Character of Clodius.--Cato
sent to Cyprus.--Attempted Recall of Cicero defeated by
Clodius.--Fight in the Forum.--Pardon and Return of
Cicero.--Moderate Speech to the People.-- Violence in the
Senate.--Abuse of Piso and Gabinius.--Coldness of the Senate toward
Cicero.--Restoration of Cicero's House.--Interfered with by
Clodius.--Factions of Clodius and Milo.--Ptolemy Auletes expelled
by his Subjects.--Appeals to Rome for Help.--Alexandrian Envoys
assassinated.-- Clodius elected aedile.--Fight in the
Forum.--Parties in Rome.--Situation of Cicero.--Rally of the
Aristocracy.--Attempt to repeal the Leges Juliae.--Conference at
Lucca.--Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.--Cicero deserts the
Senate.--Explains his Motives.--Confirmation of the Ordinances of
Lucca.--Pompey and Crassus Consuls.--Caesar's Command prolonged
for Five Additional Years.--Rejoicings in Rome.--Spectacle in the
Amphitheater.
CHAPTER XVI.
Revolt of the Veneti.--Fleet prepared in the Loire.--Sea-fight
at Quiberon.--Reduction of Normandy and of Aquitaine.--Complete
Conquest of Gaul.--Fresh Arrival of Germans over the Lower
Rhine.--Caesar orders them to retire, and promises them Lands
elsewhere.--They refuse to go--and are destroyed.--Bridge over the
Rhine.--Caesar invades Germany.--Returns after a Short
Inroad.--First Expedition into Britain.--Caesar lands at Deal, or
Walmer.--Storm and Injury to the Fleet.--Approach of the Equinox.--
Further Prosecution of the Enterprise postponed till the following
Year.-- Caesar goes to Italy for the Winter.--Large Naval
Preparations.--Return of Spring.--Alarm on the Moselle.--Fleet
collects at Boulogne.--Caesar sails for Britain a Second
Time.--Lands at Deal.--Second and more Destructive Storm.--Ships
repaired, and placed out of Danger.--Caesar marches through
Kent.--Crosses the Thames, and reaches St. Albans.--Goes no
further, and returns to Gaul.--Object of the Invasion of
Britain.--Description of the Country and People.
CHAPTER XVII.
Distribution of the Legions after the Return from
Britain.--Conspiracy among the Gallic Chiefs.--Rising of the
Eburones.--Destruction of Sabinus, and a Division of the Roman
Army.--Danger of Quintus Cicero.--Relieved by Caesar in
Person.--General Disturbance.--Labienus attacked at
Lavacherie.--Defeats and kills Induciomarus.--Second Conquest of
the Belgae.--Caesar again crosses the Rhine.--Quintus Cicero in
Danger a Second Time.--Courage of a Roman Officer.--Punishment of
the Revolted Chiefs.--Execution of Acco.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Correspondence of Cicero with Caesar.--Intimacy with Pompey and
Crassus.-- Attacks on Piso and Gabinius.---Cicero compelled to
defend Gabinius--and Vatinius.--Dissatisfaction with his
Position.--Corruption at the Consular Elections.--Public
Scandal.--Caesar and Pompey.--Deaths of Aurelia and
Julia.--Catastrophe in the East.--Overthrow and Death of Crassus.--
Intrigue to detach Pompey from Caesar.---Milo a Candidate for the
Consulship.--Murder of Clodius.--Burning of the
Senate-house.--Trial and Exile of Milo.--Fresh Engagements with
Caesar.--Promise of the Consulship at the End of his Term in
Gaul.
CHAPTER XIX.
Last Revolt of Gaul.--Massacre of Romans at
Gien.--Vercingetorix.--Effect on the Celts of the Disturbances at
Rome.--Caesar crosses the Cevennes.-- Defeats the Arverni.--Joins
his Army on the Seine.--Takes Gien, Nevers, and Bourges.--Fails at
Gergovia.--Rapid March to Sens.--Labienus at Paris.--Battle of the
Vingeanne.--Siege of Alesia.--Caesar's Double Lines.--Arrival
of the Relieving Army of Gauls.--First Battle on the Plain.--Second
Battle.--Great Defeat of the Gauls.--Surrender of Alesia.--Campaign
against the Carnutes and the Bellovaci.--Rising on the
Dordogne.--Capture of Uxellodunum.--Caesar at Arras.--Completion of
the Conquest.
CHAPTER XX.
Bibulus in Syria.--Approaching Term of Caesar's
Government.--Threats of Impeachment.--Caesar to be Consul or not to
be Consul?--Caesar's Political Ambition.--Hatred felt toward
him by the Aristocracy.--Two Legions taken from him on Pretense of
Service against the Parthians.--Caesar to be recalled before the
Expiration of his Government.--Senatorial Intrigues.-- Curio
deserts the Senate.--Labienus deserts Caesar.--Cicero in Cilicia.--
Returns to Rome.--Pompey determined on War.--Cicero's
Uncertainties.-- Resolution of the Senate and Consuls.--Caesar
recalled.--Alarm in Rome.-- Alternative Schemes.--Letters of
Cicero.--Caesar's Crime in the Eyes of the Optimates.
CHAPTER XXI.
Caesar appeals to his Army.--The Tribunes join him at
Rimini.--Panic and Flight of the Senate.--Incapacity of
Pompey.--Fresh Negotiations.-- Advance of Caesar.--The Country
Districts refuse to arm against him.-- Capture of
Corfinium.--Release of the Prisoners.--Offers of Caesar.--
Continued Hesitation of Cicero.--Advises Pompey to make
Peace.--Pompey, with the Senate and Consuls, flies to
Greece.--Cicero's Reflections.-- Pompey to be another
Sylla.--Caesar Mortal, and may die by more Means than one.
CHAPTER XXII.
Pompey's Army in Spain.--Caesar at Rome.--Departure for
Spain.--Marseilles refuses to receive him.--Siege of
Marseilles.--Defeat of Pompey's Lieutenants at Lerida.--The
whole Army made Prisoners.--Surrender of Varro.--Marseilles
taken.--Defeat of Curio by King Juba in Africa.-- Caesar named
Dictator.--Confusion in Rome.--Caesar at Brindisi.--Crosses to
Greece in Midwinter.--Again offers Peace.--Pompey's Fleet in
the Adriatic.--Death of Bibulus.--Failure of Negotiations.--Caelius
and Milo killed.--Arrival of Antony in Greece with the Second
Division of Caesar's Army.--Siege of Durazzo.--Defeat and
Retreat of Caesar.--The Senate and Pompey.--Pursuit of
Caesar.--Battle of Pharsalia.--Flight of Pompey.--The Camp
taken.--Complete Overthrow of the Senatorial Faction.--Cicero on
the Situation once more.
CHAPTER XXIII.
Pompey flies to Egypt.--State of Parties in Egypt.--Murder of
Pompey.--His Character.--Caesar follows him to Alexandria.--Rising
in the City.-- Caesar besieged in the Palace.--Desperate
Fighting.--Arrival of Mithridates of Pergamus.--Battle near Cairo,
and Death of the Young Ptolemy.--Cleopatra.--The Detention of
Caesar enables the Optimates to rally.--Ill Conduct of Caesar's
Officers in Spain.--War with Pharnaces.-- Battle of Zela, and
Settlement of Asia Minor.
CHAPTER XXIV.
The Aristocracy raise an Army in Africa.--Supported by
Juba.--Pharsalia not to end the War.--Caesar again in
Rome.--Restores Order.--Mutiny in Caesar's Army.--The Mutineers
submit.--Caesar lands in Africa.-- Difficulties of the
Campaign.--Battle of Thapsus.--No more Pardons.-- Afranius and
Faustus Sylla put to Death.--Cato kills himself at Utica.-- Scipio
killed.--Juba and Petreius die on each other's Swords.--A Scene
in Caesar's Camp.
CHAPTER XXV.
Rejoicings in Rome.--Caesar Dictator for the Year.--Reforms the
Constitution.--Reforms the Calendar--and the Criminal Law.--
Dissatisfaction of Cicero.--Last Efforts in Spain of Labienus and
the Young Pompeys.--Caesar goes thither in Person, accompanied by
Octavius.-- Caesar's Last Battle at Munda.--Death of
Labienus.--Capture of Cordova.-- Close of the Civil War.--General
Reflections.
CHAPTER XXVI.
Caesar once more in Rome.--General Amnesty.--The Surviving
Optimates pretend to submit.--Increase in the Number of
Senators.--Introduction of Foreigners.--New
Colonies.--Carthage.--Corinth.--Sumptuary Regulations.-- Digest of
the Law.--Intended Parthian War.--Honors heaped on Caesar.--The
Object of them.--Caesar's Indifference.--Some
Consolations.--Hears of Conspiracies, but disregards
them.--Speculations of Cicero in the Last Stage of the War.--Speech
in the Senate.--A Contrast, and the Meaning of it.--The
Kingship.--Antony offers Caesar the Crown, which Caesar
refuses.--The Assassins.--Who they were.--Brutus and Cassius.--Two
Officers of Caesar's among them.--Warnings.--Meeting of the
Conspirators.--Caesar's Last Evening.--The Ides of March.--The
Senate-house.--Caesar killed.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Consternation in Rome.--The Conspirators in the
Capitol.--Unforeseen Difficulties.--Speech of Cicero.--Caesar's
Funeral.--Speech of Antony.-- Fury of the People.--The Funeral Pile
in the Forum.--The King is dead, but the Monarchy
survives.--Fruitlessness of the Murder.--Octavius and
Antony.--Union of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus.--Proscription of
the Assassins.--Philippi, and the end of Brutus and Cassius.--Death
of Cicero.--His Character.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
General Remarks on Caesar.--Mythological Tendencies.--Supposed
Profligacy of Caesar.--Nature of the
Evidence.--Servilia.--Cleopatra.--Personal Appearance of
Caesar.--His Manners in Private Life.--Considerations upon him as a
Politician, a Soldier, and a Man of Letters.--Practical Justice his
Chief Aim as a Politician.--Universality of Military
Genius.--Devotion of his Army to him, how deserved.--Art of
reconciling Conquered Peoples.--General Scrupulousness and
Leniency.--Oratorical and Literary Style.--Cicero's Description
of it.--His Lost Works.--Cato's Judgment on the Civil War.--How
Caesar should be estimated.--Legend of Charles V.-- Spiritual
Condition of the Age in which Caesar lived.--His Work on Earth to
establish Order and Good Government, to make possible the
Introduction of Christianity.--A Parallel.
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